Narrator: Listen to part of lecture in business study class.

Professor: OK, so we’ve outlined a number of techniques for effective decision-making. Now, let’s focus on one approach to figuring out how to make good business decisions. OK, so one way of deciding whether to go ahead with some new investment project is to perform what’s known as CBA, or cost benefit analysis. CBA can estimate and total up the money values of both the benefits and costs to a community, institution, or. business to establish whether an investment choice is worthwhile

So let’s assume you’ve generated solutions to a business problem and have thought really carefully about which way to go. You think you have the best solution available. But before going ahead with any investment decision, what you need to do is add up the value of the benefits as well as the costs of this. action

Now what I mean by costs and benefits here is always expressed in monetary terms. So, we find out what the cost is in money terms and also what the benefits might be, also in money terms. Then we subtract. the costs from the benefits and we can choose whether to go ahead or not

All right, in simple terms, costs tend to be what we spend on something, say, for example, a new piece of machinery; and benefits are what advantages – expressed in money units – we get over the lifetime of that machinery because of having purchased it as opposed to, well, not having it, or having some alternative. In such a case, we can figure out a fairly simple CBA just by looking at expenses and then subtracting them from the savings brought about by improved . . . the improvements of introducing the machinery – that would include things like the savings met by not having to pay salaries to employees who previously did the work of the machine. We could add the fact that the machines make fewer mistakes, we hope, than human employees so there will be fewer rejected products. But, on the other hand, we have to factor in the cost of running the machines, such as maybe the increased electricity bill, the cost of repairs, and, of . course, the cost of training someone to operate the new equipment.

So that much is pretty straightforward. But we also have to think about less tangible, less visible costs and benefits. Cost benefit analysis really only works if we are careful to add in all the costs and benefits. Costs especially are sometimes hidden. For example, in paying for this new stuff, we’re taking liquid money and spending it, right? So we’re no longer paid interest from having that money in a bank or otherwise invested. OK, so we have to subtract that loss from the benefit side. Then suppose also that the new machines are noisy. That means soundproofing. That’s a cost. Or will it take up more space than the replaced workers, and therefore require an addition to the building? These are less obvious costs, but they . should be factored in to get an accurate picture

When we do CBA in a more public domain – say, on the building of a new road – the calculations can become even more tricky, although there’s some impressive software nowadays that helps us out, of course. So, how do we measure the benefits here? Does the road improve or worsen people’s lives? A new road may, for example, damage some wildlife habitat or some residential community may be inconvenienced by the noise or air pollution. On the other hand, the new road could improve property . values by decreasing commuting times. It could also save human lives, since it’s safer than the old road

In practice, CBA tries to put a value on all these things, although a lot of people may not like what it says. What it does is try to find out how people really value these apparently subjective things – by looking at the financial choices they’re prepared to make to gain a benefit, or to avoid something on the cost side. In this way, we can put a monetary figure on all benefits and costs. Of course these calculations can be complex, and sometimes controversial, but I want to point out that CBA is a powerful tool – and perhaps the most rational way of choosing whether to go ahead with a complex investment decision.

Narrator: Listen to a conversation between a student and a professor:

Student: Hi, Dr. Johnson. I came by to discuss my research paper. I dropped it by on Monday . . .about the nutritional value of chocolate.

Professor: Oh, yes, Lisa. That’s right.

Student: Have you had a chance to look at it yet?

Professor: Yeah, I sure have. Let me dig it out of my files. . . . Yeah. Here it is. OK, well, Lisa, you’ve done a fine job of citing your sources and writing up your reference page. But, you used a lot of Internet resources for your information.

Student: That’s right. You said we could, didn’t you?

Professor: Oh, yeah. But I also said to be sure to evaluate the site to make sure that it’s worthwhile before you used it. This one here . . . that I’ve circled, . . . I don’t think this is what I’d call a good source.

Student: But it has the university address of a professor. Isn’t it OK to use sites with the .edu domain in the address?

Professor: Well, you have to look beyond just the address. Yes, you are correct that this site is that of a professor, a professor at a very prestigious university, in fact. But did you notice this particular set of Web pages were student papers that the professor had uploaded for the class to read and critique? You happened to have used one of the student papers. Well, that particular student may have done a fine job in his or her research, but a student is hardly an expert in the field.

Student: Oh, I hadn’t realized that it was a student’s work. I just noticed that it was on the Web site of a professor and thought . . . well, that it would be his work.

Professor: You really need to investigate a bit deeper before you use online material. You could have checked the sources that the student had used. There might have been some useful papers by experts in that student’s reference page.

Student: OK.

Professor: Now the study here that you’ve cited looks very good. But did you notice that the person who did the study works for a laboratory that’s funded by a major chocolate company?

Student: Oh . . . so it’s biased.

Professor: Well, perhaps. At least, it should be taken with a grain of salt. But it might also be very good research. So with data like that – data which may be biased – you should try to find an independent person who’s run the same kind of experiment. Remember that a good experiment should be . . . you should be able to replicate it. So if a major chocolate company comes out with a study, we should have other people looking at that research with a critical, but open mind.

Student: So, it might be a good source. I don’t have to throw it out.

Professor: Right, but I think you should try to find more studies to back up the results. OK, so has that been helpful?

Student: Yes, oh, yeah, very, Dr. Johnson. Thank you. I really appreciate your help.

Narrator: Listen to part of class in an architecture class:

Professor: So, now I’d like to focus on the Prairie School of Architecture, which developed the most significant architectural style in North America in the first decades of the twentieth century. The main influences on this style came from several places, for example, the philosophy and practice of the architect Louis Sullivan. Now, you may remember that Sullivan liked to say that form follows function. In other words, the shape and structure of a building should follow, should depend on the purpose, the intended use of the building. There was also the English Arts and Crafts movement – that was important around this time, too. That was a second important influence. And I should mention traditional Oriental themes, which also played an important part in the Prairie School ideas. Now the students and followers of Sullivan, the most famous of whom was Frank Lloyd Wright, developed these themes and ideas into a truly American style; a style expressing a belief in the unity of mankind and nature.

Now, when people think of architecture, they often think of large public buildings, but most of the effort of the Prairie School was devoted to domestic buildings, mainly houses for well-to-do private citizens. So, can anyone here describe to me any of the important features of Prairie School houses?

Student 1: Didn’t they mostly have long horizontal lines, rather than a vertical appearance?

Professor: Yes, they did. That’s certainly part of it. We can say that the most visible external features of this architecture were horizontal lines and heavy roofs projecting away from the walls. The shapes were designed to both harmonize with and reflect the broad, flat prairies of the Midwestern United States. But, somewhat ironically, I suppose, most of these houses were actually built in more urban areas, especially in the Chicago suburbs, rather than on the prairies themselves. OK. Now, what about the insides, the interiors?

Student 2: Didn’t they want to do away with small rooms?

Professor: Well, in a sense, yes. There was certainly an emphasis on keeping the number of separate rooms to a minimum, opening up living space, and designing internal walls so that the light and view created a sense of unity. The idea was to reduce the number of interior corners typical of traditional European houses. See, Prairie School architects thought of this traditional home as confining, both physically and also spiritually. So by ridding the inside of houses of so many rooms and corners and walls, they hoped to create a feeling of movement and freedom. Their ideal of beauty was to try to make the living space more compatible with human proportions and living requirements. Often, large fireplaces were built at the center of the overall design rather than attached to an outside wall. And this gave additional structural support to the building, so it further allowed the building to get by with fewer interior walls.

Now, let me add that, in line with their belief in the importance of nature, these architects related the interiors to the surrounding natural landscape by their use of windows that were continuous ribbons of glass. So, in that way, the outside and inside of the houses were more closely related. Other ways they suggested the importance of nature were in designing terraces projecting from the external walls with parapets, walls that were used as planting boxes for flowers and shrubs, and deep roof overhangs that led the eye toward the horizon. Of course, not all Prairie School houses had all these features, but certainly we can say that there was a general tendency among these architects to provide their designs with many of them. OK, so now we’ve discussed overall structure; now what about ornamentation?

Student 2: Didn’t they reject almost all decorative elements?

Professor: Well, not entirely, although, it’s true they liked to keep things simple. Again, this was in line with their opposition to what they perceived as the fussiness of more traditional housing styles. We can say that ornamentation was only permitted if it complemented, if it blended in with the overall expression and feeling of the building. So, to this end, the Prairie School architects tended to use simple, unmixed, natural materials, sometimes with geometric or Oriental designs. For example, many of the Prairie houses had a “turned-up” roof edge reminiscent of traditional Japanese houses.

So, finally, I’d like to mention that these architects usually designed all the furniture that went with each house. Each piece of furniture, whether built-in or freestanding, was carefully crafted to fit in with the overall feeling of the house. Again, natural materials were preferred and restful horizontal lines were emphasized.

Narrator: Listen to part of a lecture in a psychology class:

Professor: Now I’d like to present an idea that has recently become much talked about in the fields of biology and psychology, and also in studies of cultural transmission. I should point out that some of what this is not fully accepted by some academics, but I’m bringing this up today just to, well, hopefully, whet your appetite.

Now, you are all familiar, of course, with the term “gene,” and how it’s considered as the unit of inheritance. As you know, we inherit our genes from our parents, and then we pass them on to our kids. What genes do is replicate, that is, they make copies of themselves. Some scientists even like to claim that animals and plants and all organisms are just essentially systems for the transmission of genes from one generation to the next. Now, sometimes genes make mistakes and the mutant forms that result may make new life forms, at least if they succeed. If the environment in which they find themselves is suitable, they will succeed and thrive and reproduce. Now, of course, environments differ from place to place, and successful genes, which inhabit various organisms, themselves change the environment. The pressures of the changing environment lead to variation in the organisms, and this eventually creates the vast complexity of life.

All right, so now I want to bring in here something that is kind of like a gene in the way it behaves. This thing is called a meme. Now, it’s spelled M-E-M-E. The term “meme” was invented by the zoologist Richard Dawkins to refer to a unit of information in our minds which influences events so that copies of itself are passed on to other minds. Some people have described memes as patterns of information that spread just like viruses or bacteria and which alter the behavior – even if in a very subtle, very small, or hardly noticeable way – causing the host to pass on the pattern. In a sense they’re parasites, because they use us, or at least our brains, as a springboard for their transmission to other brains. The essential point is that a meme replicates, that is, it’s capable of imitation, just like a gene. A meme can be an idea, a song, a joke, a food recipe, or even a way of constructing bridges. “How to make a fire” could be considered another one. What is important here is that memes are imitated and thus passed on from one person to another. Also, they don’t even have to be true; they just have to, in some way, make sense to us.

Memes seem to come in all sizes; they can be as small as, say, a new slang term, to very large, that is to say, a whole way of looking at the world, say a political ideology. Some people who write about memes would probably call such a large meme a “meme complex,” – a whole set of memes clustered together – for, as it were, mutual protection.

All right. So, the useful thing about this idea is that it enables us to explain certain things about behavior and even our physical makeup that are difficult to explain without it. At the simplest level, it helps us to understand why some ideas survive and some just drop out of sight. The memes that are transmitted are the survivors. And just as genes group together, so to speak, to form organisms that can reproduce, so memes may cluster together in human brains and pass on to other brains complex systems of thought such as political ideas or even scientific theories.

Now if we ask why our minds always appear to be active and full of thoughts, we can answer using this meme idea, that it is because memes need to get repeated over and over in our heads. They need to be rehearsed and remembered. If they’re not thought about and transferred to another brain, they’ll die out, disappear. So from the meme’s point of view, it’s necessary to be practiced, then passed on to another mind.

According to some theorists in this field, the reason our minds are continually filling up with ideas, is that the memes force us to. One person has even suggested that the human brain, with all its complexity, was in some way designed by memes in order to promote their own success.

Furthermore, surprisingly, it’s claimed that we ourselves are not the ones who benefit from our ideas, it’s – you guessed it – the memes themselves. The “self” itself is a meme. In other words, at least some theorists seem to be saying, we are nothing but temporary groupings of memes that have come together in order to be protected and passed on to other minds, in order that they can survive and prosper.

Narrator: Listen to part of a lecture in an anthropology class: 

Professor: So, we’ve had a look at the general distribution of Native American peoples throughout the continent and before the arrival of the Spaniards. Today, I wanted to focus on a particular culture, which inhabited the Southwest of what is today the United States. This was a remarkable group of agricultural people generally referred to as the “Anasazi.” By the way, I’m going to continue to use that term even though some people are not completely happy with it. It’s the best term we’ve got at the moment, and all the proposed alternative names are less accurate.

So, these people arrived in the Southwest area approximately 2,000 years ago and engaged in hunting and gathering. Over time they developed an agricultural economy with corn, squash, and beans as their primary crops. During the earlier periods, they made waterproof basket ware, and today these periods are known as the “Basket maker” cultures. We’ll take a more detailed look at these cultures later on in the course. So, anyway, eventually the Anasazi discovered that pottery was more effective for storing foodstuffs and liquids. So, they developed ceramic work often patterned with bold, brightly colored designs. This pottery was good enough to be traded throughout the region. In fact, there is evidence that trade extended into central Mexico.

Now, as well as highly skilled pottery techniques, the Anasazi also developed remarkable building techniques. They also developed a kind of road system. Well, perhaps “system” is the wrong word, since the roads didn’t really go anywhere. They were mostly just sections extending out from their larger houses, possibly to emphasize their status. Some authorities have said their purpose was really symbolic, rather than practical. OK. Where was I? Oh, yeah. The buildings. Their dwellings and ceremonial structures were often built in inaccessible locations on cliffs or protected by caves. A well-known example of an Anasazi building is the so-called “Cliff Palace” in Mesa Verde National Park. I’m sure some of you have seen pictures of this site. This large structure – oh, it contains over 200 rooms – was built on a cliff in the 1200s. It consisted of homes made of blocks of rock – varying from simple structures to large, multi-storied buildings. The Cliff Palace has generated the perception of the Anasazi as “cliff dwellers.” This extraordinary structure, along with other dwellings in the area, was deserted around AD 1300. Only about 100 years after it was built. Yes, did you have a question?

Student: Why did the Anasazi build such a large city and then abandon it?

Professor: OK. I was coming to that. The reason for the abandonment has been the source of much debate. Can anyone here think of any reason why an entire population would abandon its city?

Student: Well, the Southwest is a rather dry part of the country. Perhaps there was a drought that led to mass starvation.

Professor: OK. That is a possibility. And, in fact, tree rings from this area have been studied, and, as you know, sections through trees indicate a lot about climate patterns. These tree rings do indicate that there was a drought in the last quarter of that century. Having said that, however, it was no more severe than previous droughts, and those were not bad enough to force the people to leave.

Some researchers have argued that warfare could have been a factor in the abandonment of the area. And there is evidence that by this time people were crowded into a smaller area, and some villages were moved away from lowland areas up to higher ground. This might suggest the presence of invaders, but there’s not much other evidence to support this theory. Later sites appear to be built for defense, and excavation at other sites in the region indicates some violent struggles. The best we can say here is that warfare was a factor but probably not the underlying factor.

Student: What about a plague? After all, there were diseases in Europe around that time that really wiped out a large part of the population.

Professor: That’s a possibility. But again, there’s no strong evidence to support that theory. Myself, I’m coming around to the idea that there was some kind of environmental disaster which affected the area. We now know that the Anasazi were not living harmoniously with nature. That’s a rather naive viewpoint. They exploited their environment like most human groups. Research has shown, in fact, that the Anasazi destroyed most of the larger animals through over-hunting. So they were forced to hunt for smaller game animals. That would have meant less efficient use of their time. In other words, they would have found less food for the same amount of work. And another thing, they had to collect wood for cooking and for heat, and so the surrounding areas became deforested. Both of these environmental causes must have played a large part in their eventual disappearance from the region. OK. So this is my thinking about this mystery. I’d have to say, though, that the general consensus today appears to be that there was a combination of factors, including environmental ones, that led to the abandonment of the communities in the region, and eventually to the decline of the whole culture.

Narrator: Listen to part of a lecture in a biology class:

Professor: OK, so today we’re going to continue with a discussion about the aquatic environment. Specifically, I’m interested here in some of the adaptations that make survival possible in estuary conditions. Now, as you know, the thing about the estuarine environment is that because the tide washes in and out twice a day, the salinity, that is, the amount or proportion of salt in the water, varies or can vary considerably throughout any 24-hour period. When the tide is out, the water may be near freshwater levels and when the tide is in, the levels of salt may be more like seawater. When the water is in between seawater and freshwater, it’s called “brackish” water. By this term, we mean water that is typically less than 30 parts per thousand of salt. So, plants and animals that live in this environment must be able to adapt to these . constant changes in the saltiness of the estuary waters

So, what are the kinds of adaptations that estuarine organisms have developed? Well, the most important are either physiological and/or behavioral. Regarding the first, the physiological, the bodily adaptations tend to be associated with maintaining the right balance of salinity within the body. Some organisms, generally known as osmoregulators, control their internal concentrations of water salinity when the external environment changes. This word, of course, refers to osmosis, which . . . you don’t need me to define osmosis, do you? Good, OK. Usually this kind of creature is less permeable to water and salt. Crabs are a very good example. Crabs that live in the estuarine environment keep out both water and salt with their hard shells. But, in addition, they may have internal organs and cell functions, which can regulate salt intake and excretion. Also, certain species of fish, which adjust to differing saline conditions have specialized kidneys, gills, and skin. Specialized kidneys and gills are able to switch between excreting more or less water and also between absorbing more or less salt, as conditions permit. So, the combined properties of gills, kidneys, and an impermeable skin allow them to live in conditions of . varying salinity

Plants as well as animals may use osmoregulation to survive since, in saline habitats, salt levels can reach deadly levels. A common species of grass known as smooth cordgrass has adapted through its complex root system. These roots are able to remove salts from the water they take in. Such plants can also expel salt through their leaves, and in some species, they can also shed leaves that become loaded with excess . salt

1. So, what about the behavioral factors that help creatures exist in the estuary? Well, a common adaptation, especially among invertebrates, that is, creatures without backbones, is the ability to dig or burrow into the soft mud. Of course, this helps them avoid being eaten by predators such as birds or fish. But it’s also an important advantage for species that cannot osmoregulate – cannot control the concentration of salt solution in their bodies. This is because below the surface of the mud the concentration of salt is less than in the open water above – and what’s more, the temperature is less variable, which is also beneficial for creatures that don’t tolerate changes of temperature. On the other hand, creatures such as oysters and clams don’t like to have too low a level of salt. So these organisms simply close their shells tightly when the level of salt becomes too low, during low tides. At this point, they stop feeding and stop breathing through their gills. When the high tide returns and the oxygen and . salt levels increase, they open their shells and feed and breathe oxygen again

Other creatures are more mobile, and this too, by the way, is a behavioral adaptation. They can move upstream or downstream as conditions require. Certain crabs live in low salt areas because they can osmoregulate, but their young may not have developed this ability. So during breeding season, such species may move to areas in the sea with higher levels of saline. In the blue crab, for example, the females migrate to water of high salinity to hatch their young. Then the new generation of crabs moves back to fresher water as they develop into adults. So, does that make sense?

Narrator: Listen to a conversation between a student  and a professor:

Student: Professor James?

Professor: Yes.

Student: I was told that I should talk to you about . . . well, I’m interested in switching majors and I wanted some advice.

Professor: OK. So I assume you’re switching to a degree in linguistics. Could you give me some background on your previous studies?

Student: Yeah, I was studying speech pathology, specializing in phonological disorders. But, I went to Peru last summer, and, well, I ran out of money, and to pay for my expenses, I did some English teaching, and I really enjoyed it.

Professor: OK, um, so are you thinking about a degree in applied linguistics?

Student: Well, yeah, you know, with my background in phonology, I was able to help people improve their pronunciation, and I thought that perhaps I’d be more interested in that aspect of language.

Professor: OK. Well, some of your courses will probably fulfill linguistic requirements, and many of them will be advantageous for you as far as the knowledge is concerned, but not necessarily for course transfer.

Student: OK.

Professor: Let me find our, oh, here it is. This is an overview of the course requirements. Do you have a copy of your transcripts with you?

Student: Uh, yeah. Here you go.

Professor: Thank you. OK. Hmmm, well, besides the courses you’ve had in phonology, your Language Development course will transfer . . . Sociolinguistics and Psycholinguistics, and of course, all your general electives.

Student: Excuse me. Could you hang on a second? I want to mark the courses that will transfer.

Professor: Here’s a pen.

Student: Oh, thank you. OK . . . Language Development, Sociolinguistics, Psycholinguistics . . . OK.

Professor: Now, the Linguistics Department requires two foreign languages. I see you have Spanish. The second language should be one that is not so commonly used.

Student: What about the courses I’ve taken in American Sign Language? We had to be fluent in signing in order to communicate with people who have hearing disabilities.

Professor: I’m not sure if we can count your sign language courses, and at this point I’d rather err on the side of caution and tell you that it doesn’t fulfill the requirement.

Student: That seems reasonable. So Spanish will transfer – and I’ll put a question mark beside the American Sign Language courses.

Professor: Hmmm. Well, just at a glance, I would say that this change of major may only set you back by a semester or two.

Student: Are you calculating that based on the average number of classes that students take per term

Professor: Well, yes. Would graduating later be a problem?

Student: It might be.

Professor: I suppose that if you were to carry a heavier course load, you might be able to finish on schedule. But since some of the higher level courses have prerequisites, your taking on more courses per semester may not necessarily enable you to graduate as soon as you’d like.

Student: Well, I need to look into all options. I might be able to get more funding.

Professor: OK. Well, why don’t you take the overview I gave you and continue crossing out the courses you won’t have to take. Then check the courses that you must take and see which ones have prerequisites – and which ones you could take at the same time. Circle the ones you have questions about, and feel free to come back to see me during my office hours.

Student: OK. I guess, I’ll have to see if I can get another grant or a loan or something as well. Do I need to make an appointment to see you?

Professor: No, just show up during my office hours. And in the meantime, I’ll try to find out if the American Sign Language course can be used to fulfill your language requirement.

Student: OK. Thank you. Oh, here’s your pen.

Professor: Thank you.

Narrator: Listen to a discussion in an education class:

Professor: OK, up until now, we’ve been discussing the questions we as teachers construct for our students in order to encourage their thought process. But today, I want to look at the issue of asking questions from a different direction. Now, young children are full of questions. But once they’re in the school system, the role reverses and the teacher becomes the primary questioner. Now, according to various studies, teachers ask between 300 and 400 questions a day in the average elementary school.

Unfortunately, as children get older, they stop asking their own questions. By the time students are in a university . . . Well, last week I walked out of the Elementary Literacy course I teach, feeling kind of discouraged because not one of my students had asked me a question. Did they know it all, and consequently, was I wasting my time and theirs? Were they so lost that they found it impossible to ask questions? Was I such a great lecturer that they understood everything perfectly? What is it that keeps students from asking questions? Anybody? Annie.

Student 1: Well, you know, I think it’s hard for us to admit in front of our classmates that we don’t understand something. I mean, nobody wants to feel stupid.

Professor: So in other words, you look around at your classmates and think, “Everybody else understands this, so I must be a real idiot”?

Student 1: Well, sometimes I think that, even though I know that if I don’t understand a concept, well, probably several of my classmates don’t understand it either.

Professor: OK. What Annie is describing is the primary negative pressure that we as teachers need to constantly try to help students overcome. So, let me write that on the board: “negative pressures.” And for item number one, I’ll write “the fear of appearing stupid.” OK. Can you think of other factors that keep students from asking questions?

Student: Well, maybe this is another aspect of feeling stupid, but I think class size counts. This is a small class, and we all know each other. I don’t feel as intimidated asking a question in front of a small group of people I trust.

Student 1: You know, I can see why Tony might think class size is relevant to feeling stupid, but I think there’s more to it than that. I mean . . . well, when you ask a question in one of the large lecture halls, sometimes you have to repeat it several times ’cause the professor can’t hear you . . . and, well, that is embarrassing.

Student: Yeah, and sometimes a question is asked that the professor heard, but the students in the back of the class couldn’t hear and so the professor’s answer is meaningless.

Professor: OK. So, in other words, large class size discourages meaningful dialog, both in terms of the room size and the number of students. I’m going to write this as “large class size pressure.” Lisa?

Student 2: It’s not just large class sizes that make one feel uncomfortable. Sometimes it’s more difficult to ask a question, just because everyone knows everyone else. But lost in the crowd, it might, in fact, be easier to talk.

Professor: OK. I can see that. So let me erase “large.” There . . . “class size pressure.” Anything more to add?

Student 2: Time pressure.

Professor: “Time pressure”? Can you expand on that?

Student 2: Professor Clarkson. [laughter]

Professor: Professor Clarkson? I seem to have missed the joke.

Student: Professor Clarkson is . . . sort of . . . the epitome of time pressure.

Student 2: Yeah, he dashes through his lectures like, well as if he were trying to cram the entire field of child development into one class session.

Student 1: Yeah, it’s like he doesn’t even stop to breathe. I feel intimidated about stopping his lecture with a mere question.

Professor: OK. I think we have two negative pressures going on here. “Time pressure,” as Lisa said, and personality. A teacher’s personality seems to deter students from asking questions.

Student 2: It’s not exactly personality. I mean Professor Clarkson is a really nice man and a good lecturer.

Professor: OK, but isn’t it the signal he sends of being in a hurry that keeps you from asking questions?

Student 2: Yes, but . . . Well, when someone does get the courage to ask Professor Clarkson a question, he never gives the impression that his time is being wasted. I think the type of teacher personality that keeps students from asking questions is . . . well, sometimes a teacher makes a sarcastic joke at the student’s expense.

Professor: OK. So you do agree that personality may keep students from asking questions, even though you don’t think it applies to Professor Clarkson. So “personality.” Does anyone have any more to add? No? OK. So now I’d like you to split into groups of three. In your groups, I’d like you to discuss possible ways teachers can promote question-asking in the classroom. Keep in mind the negative pressures we’ve discussed, oh, and by the way, there are other pressures that were not mentioned, but I think you’ll come up with them in your discussions. I’ll ask you to share your thoughts in, say, 20 minutes.